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HIV immune activation plays an important role in the immune pathogenesis of this disease. The mechanisms that drive this immune activation are partially defined and may be the result of multiple factors. Although the introduction of concomitant antiretroviral therapy (cART) has improved life expectancy in HIV-infected individuals, some sustained immune activation occurs in these patients when plasma HIV RNA levels are \\\'undetectable\\\'. There is evidence that A better understanding of immune activation pathways should be of value in developing complementary therapies to restore the immune system in HIV-infected patients. This paper describes cytokine-mediated pathways of immune activation of her CD4 and CD8 T-cell pools during HIV infection.

Isolated mononuclear leukocytes, when incubated with purified haemoglobin Ao (HbAo), release the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-8 (IL-8) and tumor necrosis factor-? (TNF-?). Thus, inflammation is believed to play a role in preeclampsia. Leukocytes increase due to inflammatory response. There is also increased hemoglobin production in the PE placenta. The hemoglobin may be released into the placenta blood vessel lumen. In addition, Gene and protein profilingstudies have shown increased expression and accumulation of free fetal hemoglobinin the preeclamptic placenta. Predominantly due to oxidative damage to the placentalbarrier, fetal hemoglobin leaks over to the maternal circulation. Oxidative stress in general, and more specifically fetal hemoglobin-inducedoxidative stress, could play a key role in the pathology of preeclampsia seen both in theplacenta and ultimately in the maternal endothelium.

Co-infection with HIV and malaria presents a multifaceted clinical scenario with intricate immunological interplays, wherein neutrophils, the primary mediators of innate immunity, emerge as pivotal actors. This paper aims to comprehensively analyze the dynamic role of neutrophils in the progression of HIV within the context of malaria co-infection. Neutrophils, conventionally viewed as short-lived effectors, exhibit remarkable plasticity and multifunctionality, contributing significantly to immune responses during co-infections. Their phenotype and functions undergo profound alterations in response to the complex milieu of both HIV and malaria, impacting disease progression and immunomodulation. This paper scrutinizes the nuanced alterations in neutrophil phenotypes, their diverse effector functions, and their contributions to immunopathogenesis within the HIV-malaria co-infection paradigm. Neutrophils, driven by dysregulated cytokines and inflammatory cues, exhibit heightened activation, potentially exacerbating tissue damage and chronic immune activation. Insights gleaned from understanding neutrophil dynamics in this co-infection scenario hold significant therapeutic implications. Potential interventions targeting neutrophil responses offer promising avenues for modulating immune dysregulation and managing disease progression. The review underscores the need for innovative therapeutic approaches aimed at harnessing neutrophil functionalities to mitigate HIV progression within malaria co-infected individuals. In conclusion, unraveling the intricate roles of neutrophils provides critical insights into the immunopathogenesis of HIV within the context of malaria co-infection. This comprehensive understanding not only sheds light on immune modulation but also presents a foundation for future therapeutic strategies aimed at improving clinical outcomes in this complex co-infection scenario.

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) has revolutionized the management of HIV infection, significantly reducing morbidity and mortality in individuals living with the virus. However, the influence of ART on maternal eosinophil levels during pregnancy remains a topic of interest and debate. This review explores the current understanding of how ART affects eosinophil levels in pregnant women living with HIV, considering both the potential mechanisms underlying these changes and their clinical implications. Keywords such as HIV, antiretroviral therapy, pregnancy, eosinophils, immune response, and maternal health are utilized to delve into relevant literature and provide insights into this complex interaction. Understanding the impact of ART on maternal eosinophil levels can contribute to optimizing the management of HIV during pregnancy, ensuring maternal health, and promoting favorable pregnancy outcomes.